1. Introduction

In recent years, Mongolia has faced escalating challenges related to climate change, prompting continuous migration to ger districts on the outskirts of the capital, Ulaanbaatar. According to UN-Habitat (2016), 47% of Mongolia’s population currently resides in Ulaanbaatar. In addition, the 2022 Mongolian Housing Census indicates that 50.1% of households in Ulaanbaatar live in ger districts with insufficient infrastructure (Zindaa, 2024).

These areas are currently grappling with a wide range of social issues, including unemployment, poverty, poor health conditions, and inadequate educational infrastructure. In particular, high population density has caused severe traffic congestion, while the widespread use of heating fuels such as coal and waste tires has significantly worsened air pollution. The World Health Organization (WHO) reports that 80% of Ulaanbaatar’s air pollutants during the period from November to April originate from ger heating (World Health Organization [WHO], 2018). Additionally, the use of traditional outdoor toilets has contributed to serious soil contamination. These complex and interlinked issues are becoming increasingly severe and call for practical, long-term solutions.

This study initially hypothesized that ger district residents were primarily climate refugees. However, fieldwork conducted in Mongolia revealed broader socio-economic motivations behind migration, including the pursuit of better education for children, access to healthcare, and job opportunities. As a result, the research scope was expanded to encompass the entire ger district population rather than focusing solely on those displaced by environmental factors.

Policy responses to challenges in Ulaanbaatar’s ger districts have often been limited to short-term relief or environmental remediation. For example, the provision of free nighttime electricity during winter months temporarily reduced energy costs but did not lead to substantial improvements in living conditions. A UNICEF (2018) report similarly notes that such measures—including the distribution of clean stoves and face masks—failed to address the underlying structural vulnerabilities faced by ger district residents.

In contrast, this study focuses on the actual needs of residents and aims to develop a sustainable and practical alternative model grounded in their lived experiences. Accordingly, it seeks to identify the key drivers behind the population increase in ger districts, examine the major challenges faced by residents, and derive essential elements for sustainable community development. Ultimately, the study aims to contribute to the planning and establishment of long-term sustainable village models for ger district communities. These models are intended not only to alleviate poverty and improve living environments but also to support inclusive urban resilience and climate-responsive development, thereby reflecting the broader objectives of global sustainability initiatives.

2. Materials and Methods

Literature Review

To assess the current conditions, key issues, and policy responses related to ger districts, we reviewed a range of domestic and international academic publications, policy documents, and non-governmental organization (NGO) reports. Particular attention was paid to previous studies on the core components of sustainable village development, such as settlement-based agriculture and livestock farming, as well as solar energy systems. This theoretical review provided a foundation for evaluating both the feasibility and justification of establishing sustainable villages in the Mongolian context.

Resident Interview

Semi-structured interviews were conducted with ger district residents, target settlement areas, and the general public in Ulaanbaatar. These interviews offered qualitative insights into local challenges—including heating practices, education, and water quality—and helped identify residents’ needs and expectations for sustainable villages. In addition, interviews were held with households that had already installed solar equipment, in order to assess the practical feasibility of solar energy adoption. The diversity of interviewees, including their roles and locations, is reflected in Table 1, which outlines the composition of participants across different resident groups.

1) Resident Interviewee Selection

• Ger District Residents: Due to access limitations, participants were recruited through a local church within the ger district, rather than random sampling.

• Target Settlement Residents: Random interviews were conducted on-site, including a targeted interview with the Governor of Salkhit for contextual insights.

• General Public: Citizens were randomly approached at Ulaanbaatar Square for street interviews.

• Residents with Solar Equipment: Participants were identified through referrals during afforestation fieldwork, focusing on households using solar panels.

• Afforestation Inhabitants: Interviewees were selected from sites managed by an environmental NGO, including field workers and site representatives.

Expert/Organization Interview

In-depth interviews were conducted with a range of experts and practitioners from the Mongolian University of Life Sciences, the Han-Mongolian Urban Cooperation Center at Seoul National University, Mongolian agricultural cooperatives, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and a large-scale farm located in Baruunkharaa, Selenge Province, Mongolia. The interviews focused on the current status and challenges associated with implementing agricultural cooperatives, afforestation initiatives, and settlement-based agriculture and livestock projects. Drawing on the institutional experiences of each organization, the interviews explored both the practical possibilities and limitations of introducing these models. As summarized in Table 2, the interviewees represented a diverse set of institutions and roles across academia, NGOs, cooperatives, and the private sector.

1) Expert and Organizational Interviewee Selection

• International Food-related NGO: To explore solutions for sustainable village food systems, interviews were conducted with the foundation’s chairman and the Mongolia-based representative after contacting relevant departments.

• Environmental NGO: To understand reforestation support, interviews were held with Mongolia-focused personnel from both the Korea and Mongolia offices.

• Farm: The owner of Mongolia’s largest settlement-based farm was interviewed to assess the viability of large-scale agriculture.

• Agricultural Cooperatives: To investigate the status of agricultural cooperatives, interviews were conducted with both headquarters staff and a local branch representative. A cooperative member was also interviewed to gain practical, grassroots insights.

• Livestock Cooperatives: A representative from a major livestock cooperative was interviewed to assess current operations and relevance to sustainable village planning.

• Mongolian University of Life Sciences: Professors from relevant departments were contacted to provide academic advice on the feasibility of settlement-based agriculture in Mongolia.

• Seoul National University: Interviews were arranged with researchers involved in Mongolia-related urban planning projects.

• Yonsei University: Contact was made to receive expert consultation on urban development and sustainable settlement models.

Surveys

Surveys were conducted with 14 ger district residents and 27 Mongolian university students. The questionnaire for ger district residents focused on everyday challenges and their intentions to migrate. For university students, the survey aimed to assess their social perceptions of ger districts, their awareness of urban issues, and their understanding of sustainability. The collected responses were used as foundational statistical data for the study.

1) Survey Participant Selection

• 14 Ger District Residents: The survey was distributed with the assistance of a local church previously involved in resident interviews.

• 27 Mongolian University Students: Participants were recruited online through random outreach by a Mongolian team member’s contacts within local universities.

Fieldworks

Fieldwork was carried out at potential sites for the establishment of sustainable villages. The investigation focused on assessing land availability, accessibility, resident acceptability, and existing infrastructure to evaluate the suitability and feasibility of village development. In addition, site visits were conducted to the ger districts themselves in order to directly observe and assess the limitations of current living conditions.

Methodological Limitations

While this study employed a multi-method approach to gain a comprehensive understanding of the issues facing the ger districts and the feasibility of sustainable village development, it is not without limitations. The sample size for both interviews and surveys was relatively small due to time and resource constraints, which may limit the generalizability of the findings. Additionally, the qualitative data, while rich in context, are based on subjective perspectives that may not fully represent the broader population.

1) Research Design

The study was conducted in three phases. First, an analysis of the current conditions in ger districts was carried out to identify the key challenges that a sustainable village model must address. Second, based on these findings, a vision and set of objectives were established, and a preliminary master plan was developed. Feasible implementation strategies were derived through reference studies in specific domains, including land use, agricultural and livestock systems, solar energy deployment, and tourism resource utilization. Third, a needs assessment and field survey of the target site were conducted to evaluate local acceptability and specific demands, which informed the formulation of a final village establishment plan. The overall research process—including its phases, data sources, and analytical framework—is illustrated in Figure 1, based on the “Basic Plan for Village Development in Seongbuk-gu” by the Korea Urban Research Institute (2013).

3. Results

Analyzing the state of Ger District to identify District Challenges

1) Face-to-Face Interviews with Ger District Residents (n=2)

Face-to-face interviews with two residents of the ger districts revealed a range of challenges related to living conditions, including heating, sanitation, education, and transportation. Although coal is more affordable than wood as a heating fuel, it causes severe particulate pollution and contributes to headaches and respiratory illnesses. Water and sewage systems are outdated, and conventional outdoor toilets are still in use, leading to soil and water contamination. The lack of educational infrastructure has resulted in infringements on children's right to education. It was also noted that many residents prefer apartment-style or house-type residences over traditional gers, valuing their cleanliness and warmth.

2) Survey of Ger District Residents (n=14)

A remote survey was conducted with 14 ger district residents. The main issues identified were unemployment (17.5%), heating problems (17.5%), health-related concerns (12.5%), and the lack of water and sewage systems (10%). Other frequently mentioned challenges included inadequate educational facilities, limited access to healthcare, and unstable electricity supply. Notably, 83.3% of respondents indicated a willingness to relocate to a sustainable village if these problems were resolved. While this points to a potentially strong preference, the limited sample size warrants caution in interpretation. Still, the result may reflect a broader intention to resettle, provided that basic infrastructure and a stable living environment are ensured.

3) Face-to-Face Interviews with Ulaanbaatar Citizens (n=5)

Five Ulaanbaatar citizens participated in face-to-face interviews and expressed a clear awareness of the challenges facing ger districts. They noted that air pollution—particularly from heating fuel—was negatively affecting public health. Ulaanbaatar is currently overpopulated, with two to three times the ideal urban population, and interviewees showed a preference for population dispersion to suburban areas equipped with infrastructure such as schools and hospitals. Key urban elements highlighted by respondents included paved roads, green spaces, and educational facilities.

4) Online Survey of Ulaanbaatar University Students (n=27)

An online survey was conducted with 27 university students in Ulaanbaatar to assess their perception of ger district issues. The most critical problems identified were soil contamination from traditional outdoor toilets (33.9%), air pollution from unregulated fuel use (32.2%), and urban overcrowding (27.1%). Notably, 85% of respondents stated they would be willing to relocate to a sustainable village if it provided essential urban infrastructure. While this indicates a high level of interest among university students, the relatively small and specific sample limits the extent to which these findings can be generalized. Nevertheless, the result may suggest emerging demand among younger generations for alternative, sustainable forms of settlement outside the capital.

5) Identified Challenges

Based on the findings, the following key challenges were identified for the development of sustainable villages:

First, the issues faced by ger district residents are not limited to climate-induced displacement; rather, they affect the entire ger population regardless of migration background.

Second, although traditional ger housing was expected to be preferred, residents expressed a clear preference for apartment-style or house-type dwellings, indicating substantial demand for improved living environments.

Third, the creation of stable employment opportunities is a critical factor in encouraging voluntary resettlement and long-term settlement.

Fourth, both ger district residents and urban citizens in Ulaanbaatar demonstrated a shared awareness of the severity of environmental pollution.

Accordingly, sustainable villages should not be viewed merely as relocation destinations, but as comprehensive settlements designed to fundamentally improve living conditions and support residents’ self-reliance and autonomy.

Reference Analysis of Sustainable Village Development Elements

As summarized in Table 3, this study identified the essential components for building a sustainable village through interviews with practitioners and experts, as well as by analyzing domestic and international case studies in agriculture, settled livestock farming, cooperatives, afforestation, and solar energy. These findings provided the basis for detailed planning in each sector and were used to evaluate both feasibility and long-term sustainability.

1) Agriculture

Mongolia’s agricultural conditions are limited, with only about 1% of the country’s land suitable for cultivation (Jeong, 2014, p. 192). While the self-sufficiency rates for wheat (96%) and potatoes (99%) are relatively high, vegetables are at 54%, indicating a heavy reliance on imports for essential crops (Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Light Industry, 2023). Due to Mongolia’s industrial dependence on mining and pastoralism, expanding agricultural productivity is considered a national development priority.

This study conducted interviews with professors and researchers at the Mongolian University of Life Sciences to assess agricultural potential. Two promising regions were identified: the Central Agricultural Zone and the Steppe Agricultural Zone, where high-value crops such as corn, buckwheat, and soybeans can be cultivated. These results helped define criteria for crop selection in future village planning.

Expert consultation at a large-scale farm in Baruunkharaa, Selenge Province, Mongolia, confirmed the feasibility of cultivating watermelon, melon, and grapes. Small-scale farming in afforested areas also demonstrated the ability to produce eco-friendly vegetables like cucumbers, Chinese cabbage, carrots, and onions in response to local demand.

The study also examined the possibility of introducing smart farming. According to the Smart Farm R&D Center at the Mongolian University of Life Sciences, smart farming remains in the experimental stage—focusing on variables such as greenhouse wall thickness and water control systems. However, the high cost of winter heating significantly hinders profitability. Therefore, the model excluded smart farms and instead focused on a simpler, more practical agricultural structure.

2) Settled Livestock Farming

Mongolia’s livestock industry accounts for approximately 10.2% of the national GDP and 6.4% of foreign trade. However, its sustainability is increasingly threatened by climate change and poor resource management—exemplified by the loss of about 4.9 million animals (7.6% of the herd) earlier in the same year (Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Light Industry, 2023).

To address the limitations of traditional nomadic herding, this study examined the feasibility of transitioning to settled livestock farming. Interviews with the grassland organization Green Mongolia confirmed the structural vulnerabilities of nomadic livestock systems and emphasized the need for more stable, settlement-based alternatives.

The potential for producing 48-hour aged meat through settled livestock farming was noted as a promising route to access premium food markets and enhance the long-term viability of local economies. Interviews with domestic and international staff from the International Corn Foundation further revealed that corn is primarily used for animal feed in Mongolia and can be processed into silage. These findings suggest that a partially self-sufficient livestock system is achievable through settled livestock models.

3) National Agricultural Cooperatives

Interviews with the headquarters and regional branches of NAMAC, Mongolia’s national agricultural cooperative, revealed that cooperatives operate in a member-driven and autonomous manner. The headquarters do not collect membership fees and instead focuses on support functions such as training, financing, and promotional activities.

However, considering that agriculture and livestock projects in the proposed sustainable village model must start from a zero base, the study concluded that a more structured support framework and a viable membership fee model are necessary to ensure business stabilization and growth.

In addition, interviews with smallholder farmers operating within afforested areas underscored the need to strengthen storage and distribution infrastructure. Thus, cooperatives should evolve beyond the role of production-based communities and incorporate revenue diversification strategies such as securing storage facilities, leasing agricultural equipment, and developing distribution networks.

4) Afforestation Project

Mongolia is facing severe consequences of climate change, with average temperatures rising by 2.25°C and precipitation decreasing by 8% over the past 80 years. As of 2020, 76.9% of the national territory had become desertified. These environmental changes have not only undermined the agricultural base but have also deteriorated overall living conditions, contributing to transboundary air pollution such as yellow dust affecting neighboring countries like South Korea and China.

Consequently, afforestation projects in Mongolia serve a strategic purpose: beyond securing green space, they play a crucial role in creating favorable agricultural environments and mitigating desertification through windbreak forests. Interviews with both local and international forestry practitioners confirmed that windbreaks improve crop growth conditions by buffering strong Mongolian winds, thereby highlighting the complementary role of forestry in sustainable agriculture.

However, field investigations also identified significant challenges in revenue generation, due to the absence of efficient systems for price negotiation, product distribution, and storage. Therefore, afforestation efforts must be designed to simultaneously improve ecological resilience and ensure economic viability.

5) Solar Energy

Solar energy was identified as an appropriate renewable energy solution for sustainable village development in Mongolia, owing to the country's abundant solar irradiation and vast land area. As indicated in Table 4, both literature and interviews with local residents suggest that Mongolia receives more than 2,900 hours of sunshine per year, making it highly suitable for solar power generation. In fact, some households are already using solar panels and battery storage systems to meet basic electricity needs such as watching television and charging electronic devices.

Furthermore, global trends in the lifecycle of solar panels and electric vehicle batteries indicate a growing demand for recycling end-of-life components. Projections suggest that by 2040, China alone will account for 252 GW of retired battery capacity. Worldwide, approximately 1.56 million tons of recyclable battery materials are expected by 2030, increasing to 6.2 million tons by 2040. These figures suggest that recycling waste solar panels and batteries could help lower the initial installation costs of solar infrastructure in Mongolia.

Based on this sector-specific reference analysis, the study identifies solar energy not only as a technically viable solution but also as a financially strategic component in the development of sustainable villages.

Site Selection for a Sustainable Village

To address the previously identified challenges and implement appropriate solutions, a suitable site for a sustainable village in Mongolia was selected. Table 5 outlines the selection criteria and the corresponding scope of candidate sites.

Based on these criteria, the settlement of Salkhit (Салхит), located in Khongor Sum of Darkhan-Uul Aimag in northern Mongolia, was selected as the most appropriate site for implementation. Figure 2 shows the locations of the capital, Ulaanbaatar, and Salkhit on the map of Mongolia, and Table 6 presents key information about Salkhit.

The settlement of Salkhit can be broadly divided into one central commercial area and three residential neighborhoods. The commercial area, located in the center of the town, includes the railway headquarters, public facilities, schools, and apartment complexes, while the residential area consists mainly of privately owned homes. Table 7 shows physical status information of Salkhit, including apartments, roads, transportation, and water resources.

The town also hosts a Bag - The smallest administrative division in Mongolia, comparable to a village or subdistrict - Administrative Office and one local office of a Mongolian political party. Educational infrastructure includes School No. 11 and two kindergartens. Healthcare facilities consist of two hospitals and one pharmacy. Commercial infrastructure includes two banks and eight supermarkets. In addition, the town contains a railway station, a railway headquarters, and a thermal power plant that provides district heating. Cultural and recreational facilities include one cultural center, one sports center, and one basketball court.

As shown in Table 8, as of the end of 2024, Salkhit had a total population of 1,543 residents across 513 households. Assuming the working-age population to be between 19 and 59 years old, this group accounts for 49.7% of the total population. Among this working-age group, more than 70% are employed in the railway industry, with the remainder working in wholesale and retail, education, seasonal agriculture (mainly in summer), and service sectors.

In Salkhit, School No. 11 of Mongolia is located, accommodating a total of 337 students, 20 teachers, and 21 staff members. Additionally, there is one kindergarten operated by the railway company and another managed by Salkhit Bag.

Sustainable Village

Figure 3 summarizes the master plan for a sustainable village by applying key elements of a sustainable village to Salkhit.

Salkhit's sustainable village plan is structured around eight key domains: land use, residential, agriculture, settled livestock farming, cooperatives, afforestation, solar energy, and tourism. The details related to land use were completed with the review of an urban engineering expert, and the specifics regarding cooperatives and afforestation were supplemented based on findings from prior reference analysis of sustainable village.

1) Land Use

Figure 4 shows a bird’s-eye view of the central area, where the overall development is envisioned as a model of urban regeneration. The plan seeks to introduce a new commercial area centered on agriculture and livestock industries, while maintaining the integrity of the existing zones, including Commercial Zone A and Residential Zones 1, 2, and 3.

Peripheral zones will accommodate agricultural fields, livestock barns, afforested areas, solar power facilities, and a tourism complex. In the central area, public institutions such as police and fire stations, as well as agricultural cooperative facilities, will be located to serve both Commercial Zones A and B and support the development of the commercial district.

Furthermore, the installation of public housing complexes, parks, and pedestrian pathways will enhance the spatial connectivity between all functional zones within the village.

2) Residential

Based on interviews with residents of Salkhit, which confirmed increasing demand from both railroad industry employees and migrating populations from ger districts, a public rental housing program will be introduced to accommodate this rising demand. A total of sixteen four-story buildings will be constructed, with the capacity to house an additional 1,100 ger district migrants and 500 residents of Salkhit. These units will be allocated to new industrial workers on a priority basis, and for migrants who are unable to afford homeownership, the housing will be offered under a monthly rental system to facilitate stable settlement.

3) Agriculture

To establish a sustainable agricultural system, the target rural population for the village was set at 250 individuals. Based on this figure, total farmland was calculated by allocating 0.6 ha per person, resulting in 150 ha of arable land. This allocation is grounded in a comparative analysis with South Korea’s agricultural structure. As of 2023, the agricultural population in South Korea was approximately 2,089,000 (National Statistical Office of Korea, 2024, February 27), and the total cultivated area was 1,512,145 ha, equating to about 72 acres per capita on average (National Statistical Office of Korea, 2024, April 18). Given Mongolia’s comparatively underdeveloped agricultural infrastructure and the pilot nature of the project, a conservative figure of 60 acres per person was deemed realistic. This also aligns with the actual landholding size (~50 acres) reported by cooperative farmers interviewed during field research in Mongolia.

The total 150 ha of farmland is divided into 25 sectors, operated under a collaborative farming model. This system is designed to encourage community participation while ensuring efficiency through structured group management. The operational process consists of the following steps:

1. Basic agricultural education is provided to all residents, including instruction on crop characteristics and cultivation methods.

2. A survey on crop preferences and educational comprehension is conducted to inform group formation.

3. Residents are then organized into teams of ten, balancing skill levels and educational outcomes. Individuals who demonstrate higher levels of understanding and leadership are appointed as team leaders.

4. Each team is assigned 6 ha of farmland and, through internal discussions, selects a main crop and supplementary crops. For instance, one team may designate wheat (3 ha) as the main crop and allocate the remaining land to potatoes (1 ha), strawberries (1 ha), and watermelons (1 ha). This approach promotes crop diversification, which stabilizes income and mitigates risks associated with climate variability.

5. The farming cooperative reviews each team’s crop plan and land allocation. Upon approval, teams receive agricultural machinery, seed supplies, and technical support to initiate production.

In addition, to address potential losses from extreme weather events, a rental and loan reduction policy is implemented. In case of severe crop damage, the agricultural cooperative assesses the extent of the damage and applies graduated relief measures. Inspired by South Korea’s Farmland Bank program, the system includes progressive rent and interest relief depending on the extent of damage, from 45% to 100% (Korea Rural Community Corporation, 2020).

4) Settled Livestock Farming

The proposed settled livestock farm is designed to integrate both beef cattle fattening and breeding systems, complemented by a small-scale dairy operation with four dairy cows. The fattening component involves purchasing calves from external sources, raising them over a fixed period, and eventually shipping them as finished beef cattle. In contrast, the breeding operation focuses on inseminating cows to produce calves, which are then sold to generate revenue. This integrated model was selected to enhance both productivity and profitability. The livestock management system employs a free-range method within open barn areas, allowing multiple animals to roam together. This approach supports adequate physical activity, reduces stress, and promotes overall animal welfare. The farm is intended to operate on a small scale. Daily operations require one to two full-time workers responsible for general livestock care, health monitoring, feeding, manure management, and reproductive tasks. Feed is tailored to the species and age of the animals, typically consisting of a mixed ration of hay and corn silage in a 40–50% proportion. This feeding strategy supports steady growth and helps maintain consistent meat quality. From an operational standpoint, systematic support and collaboration with the local livestock cooperative are critical. Prospective farmers are required to complete training programs provided by the cooperative prior to receiving livestock. Initial operating capital and feed cost assistance are also provided. As the operation stabilizes, farmers have the option to expand their herd size. Five years after the initial settlement, low-interest loan repayments begin at an annual rate of 1%, with dairy cows and heifer-related costs exempt from repayment. For dairy operations, milk is delivered monthly to the cooperative, and income is distributed based on the quantity supplied, enabling farmers to meet living expenses. This introductory model aims to offer a practical foundation for initial settlement while supporting long-term self-sufficiency and sustainable growth of the farm.

5) Cooperative

(1) The Necessity and Roles of Cooperatives

The first field study in Mongolia revealed that the most pressing challenges for local farmers were not limited to crop cultivation but extended to sales and distribution. For example, the Bayannuur farm was unable to harvest seabuckthorn berries due to the lack of storage facilities, while income dropped significantly after their only transportation truck broke down. In the case of the Erden farm, negotiating with wholesalers proved difficult, limiting their profitability. These observations led to the identification of three structural problems:

1. Lack of storage facilities

2. Weak distribution infrastructure

3. Absence of wholesale expertise

Given the limitations of individual farmers in addressing these challenges, the need for agricultural cooperatives equipped with collective storage and distribution capabilities becomes clear. While existing cooperatives in Mongolia are typically composed of independent and experienced farmers or livestock producers, this study proposes a new type of cooperative aimed at supporting first-time agricultural participants through an integrated support system.

(2) Cooperative Membership Fees

The operating costs of the cooperatives, including the maintenance of wells, storage facilities, and village markets, are covered by membership fees contributed by participating farmers and herders.

(3) Roles of the Integrated Agricultural and Livestock Cooperative

• Market Operation: Operates a village-level market that sells agricultural and livestock products, ensuring income for producers and access to fresh food for residents.

• Water Resource Management: Oversees the installation and operation of wells and irrigation systems to provide a stable farming environment.

• Regional Branding: Develops and promotes local specialty products, especially those made from regional crops and seabuckthorn, to strengthen internal and external sales channels.

• Microloans: Provides low-interest microloans to farmers and herders to cover initial production and living costs.

(4) Roles of the Agricultural Cooperative

• Short-Term Equipment Rental: Offers short-term rentals of farming equipment, typically one set per five zones, with rental fees applied.

• Storage Facility Management: Manages storage for seasonal inventory adjustment and year-round supply to local processing plants.

• Wholesale and Distribution: Purchases crops at wholesale prices, supplies the village market, and handles external sales through contracted distributors, also managing price negotiations on behalf of farmers.

• Agricultural Education: Provides training on crop selection, cultivation, fertilizer usage, machinery operation, and agricultural business planning, supplemented by on-site expert guidance.

• Buckwheat Management: Oversees buckwheat planting and harvesting in the summer, and product development and tourism initiatives in the winter.

(5) Roles of the Livestock Cooperative

• Equipment Rental and Management: Offers short-term rental of livestock-related tools such as milking machines, calving devices, and tractors used for silage production.

• Storage Facility Use: Ensures proper storage of feed, hay, and processed dairy and meat products to maintain freshness and quality.

• Wholesale and Distribution: Purchases livestock at wholesale prices, manages day-of-slaughter sales and aged meat offerings for quality assurance, and handles contracts and distribution for external markets.

• Livestock Education: Provides technical training on topics such as artificial insemination, disease prevention, feed production, and efficiency improvements, supported by expert guidance.

• Feed and Breed Management: Covers up to 40% of livestock feed needs through silage, supports hay production via buckwheat field linkages, and conducts regular health checkups for quality assurance.

6) Afforestation

According to the National Agency of Meteorology and Environment (2020), approximately 120.3 million hectares, or about 76.9% of Mongolia's total land area, have been affected by desertification. The affected area is continuously expanding, leading to intensifying desertification. This process is accelerated not only by climate change but also by anthropogenic factors such as excessive livestock grazing and mining activities. Furthermore, desertification contributes to yellow dust storms impacting neighboring countries, including South Korea and China. According to reference analysis, afforestation projects are planned within sustainable villages to mitigate desertification and climate change and to preserve Mongolia’s ecosystem.

Wind induces dehydration in crops, resulting in shorter growth compared to areas without wind. Continuous exposure to wind causes plants to bend. Consequently, crops and fruit trees may suffer mechanical damage and inhibited growth due to wind stress (Woo, 2017). In the case of Salkhit, winds originating from the southern mountain range significantly influence crop growth; therefore, afforestation acting as a windbreak forest is established primarily along the southern side. The windbreaks are installed perpendicular to the prevailing wind direction. To enhance wind protection effectiveness, a three-layered structure is composed by mixing tree species of varying heights, including tall trees such as Siberian elm (Ulmus pumila) and poplar (Populus spp.), as well as shrubs like willows (Salix spp.) and sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides). Considering the wide expanse of farmland, the windbreak forest is designed with a width of 60 meters—wider than the typical 20 to 40 meters—covering a total area of 17 ha.

At the 76th United Nations General Assembly, the Mongolian government pledged to plant one billion trees by 2030 to combat desertification (KOTRA, 2022). Afforestation projects are being implemented across various regions of Mongolia through collaboration with the South Korean government, private enterprises, international NGOs, and other stakeholders. Given that the demand for seedlings exceeds production capacity, a seedling production and supply initiative is underway to support afforestation efforts and to market surplus seedlings. This initiative follows the established framework of existing afforestation programs.

In addition, fruit trees such as seabuckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides) and blackcurrant (Ribes nigrum) are cultivated locally. However, due to the absence of cold storage facilities and difficulties in securing markets, tens of tons of seabuckthorn berries are wasted annually. The introduction of cold storage facilities through cooperatives is planned to enable processing into food products and oils, thereby generating additional income.

7) Solar Energy

A sustainable energy source will be introduced by utilizing Mongolia’s favorable solar environment. To reduce initial installation costs, pre-used solar panels with an efficiency rating above 75% will be repurposed. Since solar panel manufacturers typically guarantee a lifespan of 20–25 years with a performance standard of 80%, secondhand panels with sufficient remaining life and performance will be sourced, particularly from neighboring countries like China, where a large volume of decommissioned panels is available (Energy Economics Institute, 2023). The scale and configuration of solar power systems will be determined based on assessments of local sunshine duration and the village’s estimated electricity demand. Any surplus energy generated will either be stored in energy storage systems (ESS) utilizing recycled batteries or sold to the Mongolian government to generate additional income.

8) Tourism

According to Reuters (2019), due to severe winter air pollution in Ulaanbaatar, there is a growing demand among citizens for rural places. Meanwhile, sustainable villages face challenges in generating stable year-round income due to the country’s short agricultural season and the lack of distinctive crop identity. In response, it seeks to secure year-round income generation by developing a tourism complex that can complement the agriculture-based economy.

A 50 ha buckwheat field will be established as a tourist attraction, and locally grown specialty crops such as buckwheat and watermelon will be used to operate farm-based experience programs. In addition, traditional Mongolian cultural camps and seasonal events such as winter festivals will be organized to attract external visitors and enhance the village’s visibility as a cultural destination.

4. Discussion and Conclusions

The field investigation confirmed that migration to ger districts is not driven solely by climate displacement but is influenced by a broader set of socio-economic factors, including access to education, healthcare, and employment. Residents face interconnected challenges such as air pollution from coal-based heating, soil contamination due to inadequate sanitation, limited income opportunities, and weak infrastructure.

To address these issues, this study developed a sustainable village model integrating agriculture, settled livestock farming, cooperatives, afforestation, and solar energy. The proposed model demonstrated potential for reducing environmental degradation, diversifying income, and fostering community-based self-sufficiency. Expert consultations further validated the technical feasibility of crop selection, cooperative operations, renewable energy use, and tourism development tailored to the Salkhit region.

Nevertheless, several critical limitations were identified, including a lack of baseline data on the region’s environment and economy, underdeveloped local infrastructure, and potential gaps in resident engagement. In particular, the absence of reliable data on agricultural productivity and energy demand patterns constrained the ability to formulate detailed implementation plans.

In response, this study underscores the importance of operating the model village as a flexible test bed that can incorporate continuous empirical validation and resident-centered feedback. Through this test bed, future research should first assess the economic viability and operational stability of each core sector—agriculture, livestock, and tourism—while continuously refining and adjusting strategies based on real-time outcomes. For instance, designing a reliable self-sufficient energy system will require quantitative modeling of solar generation, seasonal demand, ESS capacity, and projected revenues from surplus energy sales. Equally important is the financial foundation of the model. To ensure that residents can afford the costs associated with initial settlement and early operations, it is necessary to develop a balanced financial strategy that integrates both an internal circular economy and time-bound external support mechanisms. Establishing this well-prepared and adaptive framework will allow the model village to evolve beyond a short-term pilot, ultimately contributing to the stable livelihoods of residents and the long-term sustainability of the community.

Figure 1.

Research Framework.

Figure 2.

Location of the Salkhit in Mongolia (Source: Drawn by the authors, based on data from NSDI Mongolia, 2024, https://nsdi.gov.mn/).

Figure 3.

Sustainable Village Master Plan for Salkhit (Source: Drawn by the authors, based on data from NSDI Mongolia, 2024, https://nsdi.gov.mn/).

Figure 4.

Bird's-eye view of the central area (Source: Drawn by the authors, based on map data ©2025 Google, https://maps.google.com).

References

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